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Infectious diseases Babies born in low to middle income countries in sub-Saharan Africa and southern Asia are at the highest risk of neonatal death. Newborns can acquire infections during birth from bacteria that are present in their mother's reproductive tract. The mother may not be aware of the infection, or she may have an untreated pelvic inflammatory disease or sexually transmitted disease. These bacteria can move up the vaginal canal into the amniotic sac surrounding the baby.
Maternal blood-borne infection is another route of bacterial infection from mother to baby. Neonatal infection is also more likely with the premature rupture of the membranes PROM of the amniotic sac. Seven out of ten childhood deaths are due to infectious diseases: acute respiratory infection , diarrhea , measles , and malaria.
Measles is the fifth-largest cause of childhood mortality. Folic acid for mothers is one way to combat iron deficiency. A few public health measures used to lower levels of iron deficiency anemia include iodize salt or drinking water, and include vitamin A and multivitamin supplements into a mother's diet. A deficiency of this vitamin causes certain types of anemia low red blood cell count.
Environmental Infant mortality rate can be a measure of a nation's health and social condition. It is a composite of a number of component rates which have their separate relationship with various social factors and can often be seen as an indicator to measure the level of socioeconomic disparity within a country.
Organic water pollution is a better indicator of infant mortality than health expenditures per capita. Water contaminated with various pathogens houses a host of parasitic and microbial infections. Infectious disease and parasites are carried via water pollution from animal wastes. Areas of low socioeconomic status are more prone to inadequate plumbing infrastructure, and poorly maintained facilities.
The burning of inefficient fuels doubles the rate of children under 5 years old with acute respiratory tract infections. Climate and geography often play a role in sanitation conditions. For example, the inaccessibility of clean water exacerbates poor sanitation conditions. People who live in areas where particulate matter PM air pollution is higher tend to have more health problems across the board. Short-term and long-term effects of ambient air pollution are associated with an increased mortality rate, including infant mortality.
Air pollution is consistently associated with post neonatal mortality due to respiratory effects and sudden infant death syndrome SIDS. High infant mortality is exacerbated because newborns are a vulnerable subgroup that is affected by air pollution. Newborns who were born into these environments are no exception.
Women who are exposed to greater air pollution on a daily basis who are pregnant should be closely watched by their doctors, as well as after the baby is born. Babies who live in areas with less air pollution have a greater chance of living until their first birthday.
As expected, babies who live in environments with more air pollution are at greater risk for infant mortality. Areas that have higher air pollution also have a greater chance of having a higher population density, higher crime rates and lower income levels, all of which can lead to higher infant mortality rates.
The key pollutant for infant mortality rates is carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that does great harm especially to infants because of their immature respiratory system. Another major pollutant is second-hand smoke, which is a pollutant that can have detrimental effects on a fetus.
According to the American Journal of Public Health, "in , more than 42 Americans died of second hand smoke-attributable diseases, including more than 41 adults and nearly infants In synthesis of this research, it has been observed that "African American infant mortality remains elevated due to the social arrangements that exist between groups and the lifelong experiences responding to the resultant power dynamics of these arrangements.
Parker Dominguez at the University of Southern California has made some headway in determining the reasoning behind this, claiming black women are more prone to psychological stress than other women of different races in the United States. Stress is a lead factor in inducing labor in pregnant women, and therefore high levels of stress during pregnancy could lead to premature births that have the potential to be fatal for the infant.
Early childhood trauma Early childhood trauma includes physical, sexual, and psychological abuse of a child ages zero to five years-old. Trauma in early development has extreme impact over the course of a lifetime and is a significant contributor to infant mortality. Developing organs are fragile. When an infant is shaken, beaten, strangled, or raped the impact is exponentially more destructive than when the same abuse occurs in a fully developed body.
Studies estimate that 1—2 per , U. Unfortunately, it is reasonable to assume that these statistics underrepresent actual mortality. Three-quarters In particular, correctly identifying deaths due to neglect is problematic, and children with sudden unexpected death or those with what appear to be unintentional causes on the surface often have preventable risk factors which are substantially similar to those in families with maltreatment. The younger an infant is, the more dangerous the maltreatment.
Family configuration, child gender, social isolation, lack of support, maternal youth, marital status, poverty , parental ACES , and parenting practices are thought to contribute to increased risk. Socio-economic factors Infant mortality rates are higher in countries with higher economic inequality.
Social class is a major factor in infant mortality, both historically and today. Between and , the Children's Bureau in the United States examined data across eight cities and nearly 23, live births. They discovered that lower incomes tend to correlate with higher infant mortality. Differences between races were also apparent. While infant mortality is normally negatively correlated with GDP, there may indeed be some opposing short-term effects from a recession.
A recent study by The Economist showed that economic slowdowns reduce the amount of air pollution, which results in a lower infant mortality rate. In the late s and early s, the recession's impact on air quality is estimated to have saved around 1, US babies. It is only during deep recessions that infant mortality increases. Social class dictates which medical services are available to an individual. Disparities due to socioeconomic factors have been exacerbated by advances in medical technology.
Developed countries, most notably the United States, have seen a divergence between those living in poverty who cannot afford medical advanced resources, leading to an increased chance of infant mortality, and others. Countries by GDP nominal per capita Political modernization perspective, the neo-classical economic theory that scarce goods are most effectively distributed to the market, say that the level of political democracy influences the rate of infant mortality.
Developing nations with democratic governments tend to be more responsive to public opinion, social movements , and special interest groups for issues like infant mortality. In contrast, non-democratic governments are more interested in corporate issues and less so in health issues. Democratic status effects the dependency a nation has towards its economic state via export, investments from multinational corporations and international lending institutions.
Levels of socioeconomic development and global integration are inversely related to a nation's infant mortality rate. Dependency perspective occurs in a global capital system. A nation's internal impact is highly influenced by its position in the global economy and has adverse effects on the survival of children in developing countries.
Countries can experience disproportionate effects from its trade and stratification within the global system. It aids in the global division of labor , distorting the domestic economy of developing nations. The dependency of developing nations can lead to a reduce rate of economic growth, increase income inequality inter- and intra-national, and adversely affects the wellbeing of a nation's population.
A collective cooperation between economic countries plays a role in development policies in the poorer, peripheral, countries of the world. These economic factors present challenges to governments' public health policies. If the nation's ability to raise its own revenues is compromised, governments will lose funding for its health service programs, including services that aim in decreasing infant mortality rates.
Peripheral countries face higher levels of vulnerability to the possible negative effects of globalization and trade in relation to key countries in the global market. Even with a strong economy and economic growth measured by a country's gross national product , the advances of medical technologies may not be felt by everyone, lending itself to increasing social disparities.
In England from to a rise in infant mortality was experienced disproportionately in the most deprived local authorities where the previously declining trend in infant mortality was reversed with an additional 24 infant deaths per , live births per year relative to the previous trend War In policy, there is a lag time between realization of a problem's possible solution and actual implementation of policy solutions. In most cases, war-affected areas will experience a significant increase in infant mortality rates.
Having a war taking place where a woman is planning on having a baby is not only stressful on the mother and foetus, but also has several detrimental effects. However, many other significant factors influence infant mortality rates in war-torn areas. Health care systems in developing countries in the midst of war often collapse. Attaining basic medical supplies and care becomes increasingly difficult. Preventable diseases can quickly become epidemic given the medical conditions during war.
Many developing countries rely on foreign aid for basic nutrition. Transport of aid becomes significantly more difficult in times of war. In most situations the average weight of a population will drop substantially.
Expecting mothers are affected even more by lack of access to food and water. During the Yugoslav Wars in Bosnia the number of premature babies born increased and the average birth weight decreased. There have been several instances in recent years of systematic rape as a weapon of war. Women who become pregnant as a result of war rape face even more significant challenges in bearing a healthy child. Studies suggest that women who experience sexual violence before or during pregnancy are more likely to experience infant death in their children.
Causes of infant mortality in abused women range from physical side effects of the initial trauma to psychological effects that lead to poor adjustment to society. Many women who became pregnant by rape in Bosnia were isolated from their hometowns making life after childbirth exponentially more difficult.
Culture High rates of infant mortality occur in developing countries where financial and material resources are scarce and there is a high tolerance to high number of infant deaths. There are circumstances where a number of developing countries to breed a culture where situations of infant mortality such as favoring male babies over female babies are the norm.
In developing countries such as Brazil, infant mortality rates are commonly not recorded due to failure to register for death certificates. Failure to register is mainly due to the potential loss of time and money and other indirect costs to the family. Even with resource opportunities such as the Public Registry Law , which allowed free registration for low-income families, the requirements to qualify hold back individuals who are not contracted workers.
Another cultural reason for infant mortality, such as what is happening in Ghana, is that "besides the obvious, like rutted roads, there are prejudices against wives or newborns leaving the house. Cultural influences and lifestyle habits in the United States can account for some deaths in infants throughout the years. According to the Journal of the American Medical Association "the post neonatal mortality risk 28 to days was highest among continental Puerto Ricans" compared to babies of the non-Hispanic race.
Examples of this include teenage pregnancy, obesity, diabetes and smoking. All are possible causes of premature births, which constitute the second highest cause of infant mortality. Ethnic differences experienced in the United States are accompanied by higher prevalence of behavioral risk factors and sociodemographic challenges that each ethnic group faces.
Male sex favoritism Historically, males have had higher infant mortality rates than females. The difference between male and female infant mortality rates have been dependent on environmental, social, and economic conditions. More specifically, males are biologically more vulnerable to infections and conditions associated with prematurity and development. Before , the reasons for male infant mortality were due to infections, and chronic degenerative diseases.
However, since , certain cultures emphasizing males has led to a decrease in the infant mortality gap between males and females. Also, medical advances have resulted in a growing number of male infants surviving at higher rates than females due to the initial high infant mortality rate of males. Genetic components results in newborn females being biologically advantaged when it comes to surviving their first birthday.
Males, biologically, have lower chances of surviving infancy in comparison to female babies. As infant mortality rates saw a decrease on a global scale, the gender most affected by infant mortality changed from males experiences a biological disadvantage, to females facing a societal disadvantage. Some developing nations have social and cultural patterns that reflects adult discrimination to favor boys over girls for their future potential to contribute to the household production level.
A country's ethnic composition, homogeneous versus heterogeneous, can explain social attitudes and practices. Heterogeneous level is a strong predictor in explaining infant mortality. Birth spacing Map of countries by fertility rate , according to the Population Reference Bureau Birth spacing is the time between births.
Births spaced at least three years apart from one another are associated with the lowest rate of mortality. The longer the interval between births, the lower the risk for having any birthing complications, and infant, childhood and maternal mortality. Higher rates of pre-term births, and low birth weight are associated with birth to conception intervals of less than six months and abortion to pregnancy interval of less than six months.
Unplanned pregnancies and birth intervals of less than twenty-four months are known to correlate with low birth weights and delivery complications. Also, women who are already small in stature tend to deliver smaller than average babies, perpetuating a cycle of being underweight. Prevention and outcomes To reduce infant mortality rates across the world, health practitioners, governments, and non-governmental organizations have worked to create institutions, programs and policies to generate better health outcomes.
Current efforts focus on development of human resources, strengthening health information systems, health services delivery, etc. Improvements in such areas aim to increase regional health systems and aided in efforts to reduce mortality rates. Policy Reductions in infant mortality are possible in any stage of a country's development. Rate reductions are evidence that a country is advancing in human knowledge, social institutions and physical capital.
Governments can reduce the mortality rates by addressing the combined need for education such as universal primary education , nutrition, and access to basic maternal and infant health services. A policy focus has the potential to aid those most at risk for infant and childhood mortality allows rural, poor and migrant populations. Breastmilk is a natural source of Vitamin A, and supplies the suckling infant with enough Vitamin A.
Newborns can acquire infections during birth from bacteria that are present in their mother's reproductive tract. The mother may not be aware of the infection, or she may have an untreated pelvic inflammatory disease or sexually transmitted disease. These bacteria can move up the vaginal canal into the amniotic sac surrounding the baby.
Maternal blood-borne infection is another route of bacterial infection from mother to baby. Neonatal infection is also more likely with the premature rupture of the membranes PROM of the amniotic sac. Measles is the fifth-largest cause of childhood mortality. A few public health measures used to lower levels of iron deficiency anemia include iodize salt or drinking water, and include vitamin A and multivitamin supplements into a mother's diet. Water contaminated with various pathogens houses a host of parasitic and microbial infections.
Infectious disease and parasites are carried via water pollution from animal wastes. For example, the inaccessibility of clean water exacerbates poor sanitation conditions. Short-term and long-term effects of ambient air pollution are associated with an increased mortality rate, including infant mortality. Air pollution is consistently associated with post neonatal mortality due to respiratory effects and sudden infant death syndrome.
Specifically, air pollution is highly associated with SIDs in the United States during the post-neonatal stage. Women who are exposed to greater air pollution on a daily basis who are pregnant should be closely watched by their doctors, as well as after the baby is born. Babies who live in areas with less air pollution have a greater chance of living until their first birthday. As expected, babies who live in environments with more air pollution are at greater risk for infant mortality.
Areas that have higher air pollution also have a greater chance of having a higher population density, higher crime rates and lower income levels, all of which can lead to higher infant mortality rates. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that does great harm especially to infants because of their immature respiratory system. According to the American Journal of Public Health, "in , more than 42 Americans died of second hand smoke-attributable diseases, including more than 41 adults and nearly infants In synthesis of this research, it has been observed that "African American infant mortality remains elevated due to the social arrangements that exist between groups and the lifelong experiences responding to the resultant power dynamics of these arrangements.
Between and , the Children's Bureau in the United States examined data across eight cities and nearly 23, live births. They discovered that lower incomes tend to correlate with higher infant mortality. Differences between races were also apparent. A recent study by The Economist showed that economic slowdowns reduce the amount of air pollution, which results in a lower infant mortality rate.
In the late s and early s, the recession's impact on air quality is estimated to have saved around 1, US babies. Disparities due to socioeconomic factors have been exacerbated by advances in medical technology. Developed countries, most notably the United States, have seen a divergence between those living in poverty who cannot afford medical advanced resources, leading to an increased chance of infant mortality, and others. Having a war taking place where a woman is planning on having a baby is not only stressful on the mother and fetus, but also has several detrimental effects.
However, many other significant factors influence infant mortality rates in war-torn areas. Health care systems in developing countries in the midst of war often collapse. Attaining basic medical supplies and care becomes increasingly difficult. Preventable diseases can quickly become epidemic given the medical conditions during war. Transport of aid becomes significantly more difficult in times of war. In most situations the average weight of a population will drop substantially. During the Yugoslav Wars in Bosnia the number of premature babies born increased and the average birth weight decreased.
Women who become pregnant as a result of war rape face even more significant challenges in bearing a healthy child. Studies suggest that women who experience sexual violence before or during pregnancy are more likely to experience infant death in their children. Many women who became pregnant by rape in Bosnia were isolated from their hometowns making life after childbirth exponentially more difficult.
This tells us that not only is it extremely necessary for every child to get these vaccines to prevent serious diseases, but there is no reason to believe that if your child does receive an immunization that it will have any effect on their risk of SIDS. Developing nations with democratic governments tend to be more responsive to public opinion, social movements , and special interest groups for issues like infant mortality. In contrast, non-democratic governments are more interested in corporate issues and less so in health issues.
Democratic status effects the dependency a nation has towards its economic state via export, investments from multinational corporations and international lending institutions. A nation's internal impact is highly influenced by its position in the global economy and has adverse effects on the survival of children in developing countries. The dependency of developing nations can lead to a reduce rate of economic growth, increase income inequality inter- and intra-national, and adversely affects the wellbeing of a nation's population.
A collective cooperation between economic countries plays a role in development policies in the poorer, peripheral, countries of the world. There are circumstances where a number of developing countries to breed a culture where situations of infant mortality such as favoring male babies over female babies are the norm.
Cultural influences and lifestyle habits in the United States can account for some deaths in infants throughout the years. According to the Journal of the American Medical Association "the post neonatal mortality risk 28 to days was highest among continental Puerto Ricans" compared to babies of the non-Hispanic race. Examples of this include teenage pregnancy, obesity, diabetes and smoking. All are possible causes of premature births, which constitute the second highest cause of infant mortality.
The difference between male and female infant mortality rates have been dependent on environmental, social, and economic conditions. More specifically, males are biologically more vulnerable to infections and conditions associated with prematurity and development. Before , the reasons for male infant mortality were due to infections, and chronic degenerative diseases.
However, since , certain cultures emphasizing males has led to a decrease in the infant mortality gap between males and females. Also, medical advances have resulted in a growing number of male infants surviving at higher rates than females due to the initial high infant mortality rate of males. Males, biologically, have lower chances of surviving infancy in comparison to female babies.
As infant mortality rates saw a decrease on a global scale, the gender most affected by infant mortality changed from males experiences a biological disadvantage, to females facing a societal disadvantage. A country's ethnic composition, homogeneous versus heterogeneous, can explain social attitudes and practices. Heterogeneous level is a strong predictor in explaining infant mortality.
Births spaced at least three years apart from one another are associated with the lowest rate of mortality. The longer the interval between births, the lower the risk for having any birthing complications, and infant, childhood and maternal mortality.
Also, women who are already small in stature tend to deliver smaller than average babies, perpetuating a cycle of being underweight. Mothers with a secondary education have a higher probability of waiting until a later age to get pregnant. Once pregnant, they are also more likely to get prenatal and postnatal care, and deliver their child in the presence of a skilled attendant.
Women who finish at least a primary-level education have improved nutrition, medical care , information access, and economic independence. Infants reap benefits such as healthy environments, improved nutrition, and medical care.
Mothers with some level of education have a higher probability to breastfeeding. Its fourth goal is to decrease the number of mortalities within the infant and childhood population by two thirds, a decrease from 95 to 31 deaths per Governments can reduce the mortality rates by addressing the combined need for education such as universal primary education , nutrition, and access to basic maternal and infant health services.
A policy focus has the potential to aid those most at risk for infant and childhood mortality allows rural, poor and migrant populations. Improving hygiene can prevent infant mortality. Overall, women's health status need to remain high.
It is important that women of reproductive age adopt healthy behaviors in everyday life, such as taking folic acid, maintaining a healthy diet and weight, being physically active, avoiding tobacco use, and avoiding excessive alcohol and drug use.
If women follow some of the above guidelines, later complications can be prevented to help decrease the infant mortality rates. Attending regular prenatal care check-ups will help improve the baby's chances of being delivered in safer conditions and surviving.
Focusing on preventing preterm and low birth weight deliveries throughout all populations can help to eliminate cases of infant mortality and decrease health care disparities within communities. In the United States, these two goals have decreased infant mortality rates on a regional population, it has yet to see further progress on a national level. It has been shown that technological determinants are influenced by social determinants.
Those who cannot afford to utilize advances in medicine tend to show higher rates of infant mortality. Technological advances has, in a way, contributed to the social disparities observed today. Providing equal access has the potential to decrease socioeconomic disparities in infant mortality. The symptoms only last 24 hours and the result is death. As stated if technological advances were increased in countries it would make it easier to find the solution to diseases such as this.
Educational means can also teach mothers on the beneficial health practices such as breastfeeding. Government recognizing birth space as a possible health intervention is now working towards making affordable contraception available. Having a gainful employment can raise the perceived worth of females.
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