Liquid democracy ethereum
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However, in a blockchain-based e-voting system, we use permissioned blockchain because voting is limited to people over the age of As a result, we only allow individuals who meet certain criteria to maintain security and immutability. Figure 1 Types of blockchain. Blockchain is a distributed, immutable, and secure public ledger [ 5 ]. In blockchain technology, the ledger is located in different locations. The maintenance of the services in distributed ledgers is easy as far as compared to the centralized system.
As a result, when one system fails in a distributed or decentralized system, it does not shut down the entire system; in other words, the distributed ledger has no single point of failure. Furthermore, because of distributed control, it is a public ledger, which means that anyone who adds a new transaction or proposed new block to the ledger must refer to the preceding block of the ledger to create an immutable chain and avoid or prohibit manipulation.
To improve security, the chains of these blocks are linked using hashing or cryptographic techniques [ 6 , 7 ]. The blockchain technology is consequently considered by several researchers, including us, to be the superlative technology, to create a new democratic modern voting process.
Motivation and Contribution In major countries, democracy is a vital and strong political source, and elections are used to establish and develop democracy [ 8 , 9 ]. Democracy can be achieved by using the blockchain-based e-voting system as compared to traditional voting practices, as presented in Table 1. In this paper, we propose the blockchain-based e-voting system for Pakistan. Pakistan is a democratic country that still practices manual and expensive election techniques [ 10 ], which results in lengthy procedures, forged entries, counting problems, ballot paper mishandling, and major security, accessibility, and reliability issues [ 11 , 12 ].
Table 1 Comparison of traditional, normal, and blockchain-based e-voting system. In this study, we evaluate the use of blockchain as a service in the context of Pakistan, to establish an electronic democratic voting system, in order to give transparency, security, accuracy, verifiability, and voting authenticity in a less expensive and faster manner.
The notations used in this paper are described in Table 2. Table 2 Notation guide. The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. The related work is discussed in Section 3. In Section 4 , liquid democracy fundamental thought is discussed.
In Section 5 , blockchain-based e-voting system is discussed. Implementation details are provided in Section 6. Experimentation and testing are covered in Section 7. Finally, in Section 8 , the conclusions are presented. Related Work Many researchers have been working on blockchain technologies in recent decades. Satoshi Nakamoto launched the first cryptocurrency, Bitcoin, in , which paved the way for blockchain technology [ 13 ].
The Bitcoin blockchain technology uses a public distributed ledger, immutable transactions, and secure and limited encryption and is based on the PoW consensus mechanism [ 14 ]. Blocks are linked in such a way that each block contains the hash of the previous block, which is generated by adding the nonce number only once value to generate the hash according to certain rules.
This increases the hash difficulty level and provides immutability [ 17 ]. Blockchain is being employed in a variety of industries, including cryptocurrencies, healthcare, e-voting systems, and supply chain management systems [ 18 ]. In the healthcare industry, blockchain technology is extensively used to maintain health-related records and make them more secure and accurate.
The blockchain technology advanced the medicine and healthcare industry. Several researchers used the blockchain to project the e-health systems in terms of proposing data management schemes, medicine precisions, biomedical sciences, brain research, and much more [ 19 — 24 ]. On the other hand, for years, researchers and practitioners have been working on blockchain-based e-voting by casting and producing high-quality, secure, and transparent results utilizing computer tools and equipment.
Erstwhile researcher contributes for eliminating malleability transaction to control and decrease the blocks and transactions tempering in Bitcoins. Transaction tempering and malleability is a major concern in e-voting systems for fair elections [ 25 — 27 ]. Practitioners investigate the blockchain performance constraints and always try to introduce universally verifiable blockchain-based e-voting systems. E-voting systems are improved by introducing secure architectures, visual cryptography, and consensus algorithms [ 5 , 28 , 29 ].
The blockchain-based e-vote-as-a-service architecture, which dynamically picks, deploys, and executes an e-voting service, and a cloud-based decentralized e-voting system architecture are proposed in [ 30 , 31 ], respectively. An intelligent agents-based voting system is introduced in [ 32 ], to maintain transparency and auditability by integrating a single supervised online voting system.
In [ 33 ], the authors create a secure voting system by using the hardware to exchange data and optimized the proposed proof-of-work PoW consensus algorithm. However, these kinds of systems need large computational power and communication overhead [ 36 , 37 ]. Liquid Democracy Fundamental Thought This section explains liquid democracy and the design considerations that go into it. After that, we discussed smart contracts and blockchain technology, as well as their capabilities as a service for designing a liquid democratic electronic voting system.
Individuals with clear information can have a greater influence on the outcome of decisions, resulting in more democratic governance. Although liquid democracy could be a viable alternative to open soliciting, there are some technical and societal barriers to overcome [ 39 ].
We have compiled a list of the basic assumptions that an electronic voting system must meet in order to be used effectively in national elections: a The election system should not allow for compulsory voting b The election system should not be able to track the credentials of voters c The election system should ensure and demonstrate to voters that their votes were counted and correctly counted d The electoral system should not allow for vote-rigging by third parties e No one should be able to control vote counting and determine election results in the election system f According to the voting system, only eligible people should be allowed to vote in elections 5.
Blockchain-Based E-Voting System For public voting, we have proposed a blockchain-based national e-voting system. Proposed Architecture In Step 1, the voters must register by providing their identity number and other credentials; the block will be created against the voter record, and the private and public keys will be assigned to that particular voter.
In Step 4, the voters cast their vote against a certain candidate. In Step 5, polling stations update the blockchain with the results while in Step 6, the system mining node verifies the record for tampering and sends it back to the blockchain. In Step 7, at the end, the final result will be displayed when the election is over, as the proposed architecture discussed above is illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Blockchain-based e-voting system architecture. Smart Contract Ethereum is a blockchain platform that is open-source and may be used to deploy smart contracts. Ethereum includes a new programming language called Solidity for creating these contracts [ 40 ].
Using smart contracts in the permissioned blockchain, we implement the design electronic voting system as a system based on smart contracts. A smart contract identifies the roles involved in the agreement election agreement as well as the various components and transactions in the agreement process [ 41 ]. Election administrators generate election ballots by interacting with smart contracts.
In a smart contract, the administrator describes the candidate list along with voting districts. Voters will register and cast the vote in their specific districts and that would be stored in blockchain against specific nodes. In a blockchain-based e-voting system, we identify the components for implementing the electronic voting smart contract as shown in Figure 3. Figure 3 Election as a smart contract. We can employ a permissioned blockchain with the proof-of-authority PoA [ 42 ] consensus algorithm in our proposed method.
The nodes are verified by authorized nodes in a network based on proof of authority, and certain predetermined boundaries are enforced. This manner is computerized and does now no longer require verifiers to continuously reveal their computers. A permissioned blockchain employs PoA consensus methods to impose rules on a specific set of recognized entities in order to verify and display transactions on the blockchain, as well as arbitrarily evaluate transactions while their identities and popularity are in jeopardy.
The identity of voters is not revealed in order to protect their privacy. Example of transactions is shown in Table 3. Table 3 Example of our system transaction. Moreover, this would be audited by the miner node using the proof-of-work consensus algorithm, i. Furthermore, using a dedicated community reduces the ability of eavesdroppers to trace visitors and incoming data.
It is critical to obtain voting rights so that citizens can vote without having to divulge their identities. This is required in order to gain voting privileges, which will allow voters to vote without having to reveal their identity or voting information. Figure 4 Voter class.
Ballot Class In ballot class voter id, voteable candidates list, ballot class will be called. After all, many legal citizens do not bother voting now or even reading up much on the politics that are affecting them. That said, a liquid democracy system allows any citizens who are interested in being more involved to do exactly that.
Nobody is ever forced to go online and vote or partake in a political discussion, but if they would like to, they can. So, adopting a liquid democracy system could very well encourage more participation from citizens across the political landscape. Potential Issues As with all political concepts, there are some potential issues in spite of all of the potential benefits of liquid democracy.
For example, even today, many people do not own a computer or other device with reliable access to the internet. This therefore means that people of lower means and resources may not be able to participate even if they would like to, thereby putting them at a disadvantage and not fully representing them. Liquid Democracy at Work Although, again, liquid democracy is still a fairly new idea, the truth is that some countries have already begun to utilize it in some forms.
For example, certain political parties in Austria, Germany, Italy, France, Norway and the Netherlands are currently using an open source software called Liquid Feedback to get more input from interested citizens. Meanwhile, a political party in Belgium has started using an online discussion space called Get Opinionated on GitHub. A modern political party in Spain has also started using liquid democracy in an effort to better represent citizens and become more effective Newsletter.
E/W BETTING MEANING
Given the interval to be updated, the execution begins at the root node, then the interval are separated to one or two sub-intervals. The recursion ends when the interval to be update equals to the interval of current node. For example, when interval [4,8] is to be update, beginning at the root, it separates to [4,6] and [7,8], which are executed at note 2 and 3 respectively. The recursion ends at node 5 and node 12 which are omitted in Figure 3. Interval tree supports find and update operation.
For update operation, usually not every leaf node is updated since the update information may stop at an intermediate node, recorded as lazy-tag, which means that it is temporarily suspended and will be executed in subsequent operations.
Find operations need to be executed recursively starting from the root, and trigger the pass-down operation of all lazy-tags until the leaf node is reached. The complexity is O logn with respect to interval tree for both operations. We refer , Chapter When a voter votes, his actual voting power is his total voting power minus his lost voting power. Lost voting powers of other voters that have not voted yet do not change lost voting powers for voters that have voted is meaningless since each voter can only vote once.
Lost voting powers of other voters that have not voted yet do not change. It is not hard to get the following observation: Observation 1. Note that in a tree, there is one and only one path from a node to one of his parent. However, both 1 and 2 need to traverse the graph in traditional method, whose time complexity is O n when the depth of the graph is high say, chain like.
Our solution is to use the interval tree to achieve O logn , and use Merkel tree to for initialization. The following two sequences are used, the preorder sequence and the bracket sequence. Bracket sequence, that is, still traverse the tree in preorder but record the nodes when entering and exiting it respectively. Our algorithm consists of the following three parts.
The recursion ends when the interval to be update equals to the interval ofcurrent node. For example, when interval [4,8] is to be update, beginning atthe root, it separates to [4,6] and [7,8], which are executed at note 2 and 3respectively. The recursion ends at node 5 and node 12 which are omittedin Figure 3. Interval tree supports find and update operation. For update operation,usually not every leaf node is updated since the update information maystop at an intermediate node, recorded as lazy-tag, which means that it istemporarily suspended and will be executed in subsequent operations.
Findoperations need to be executed recursively starting from the root, and triggerthe pass-down operation of all lazy-tags until the leaf node is reached. Thecomplexity is O log n with respect to interval tree for both operations.
Werefer [20], Chapter When a voter votes, his actual voting power is his total voting powerminus his lost voting power. Lostvoting powers of other voters that have not voted yet do not change lost voting powers for voters that have voted is meaningless since eachvoter can only vote once.
Lost votingpowers of other voters that have not voted yet do not change. It is not hard to get the following observation: Observation 1. Note that in a tree, there is one and onlyone path from a node to one of his parent. So the main two goals of our algorithm are: 1. However, both 1 and 2 need to traverse the graph in traditional method,whose time complexity is O n when the depth of the graph is high say,chain like.
Our solution is to use the interval tree to achieve O log n , anduse Merkel tree to for initialization. The following two sequences are used, the preorder sequence and thebracket sequence. In Figure 1, the preorder sequence is 1 2 Our algorithm consists of the following three parts. All variables are global and initially valued 0 unless otherwise stated. Forother intermediate variables we will illustrate in the following subsection. Before that, we recommenda protocol that each voter locally downloads the blockchain data andchecks whether his delegate operation generates a cycle in the delegategraph.
If so, the voter should change his delegate. The protocol canbe integrated in the client. After that, the prepare period begins.
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We refer [20], Chapter When a voter votes, his actual voting power is his total voting power minus his lost voting power. Lost voting powers of other voters that have not voted yet do not change lost voting powers for voters that have voted is meaningless since each voter can only vote once. Lost voting powers of other voters that have not voted yet do not change.
It is not hard to get the following observation: Observation 1. Note that in a tree, there is one and only one path from a node to one of his parent. So the main two goals of our algorithm are: 1. However, both 1 and 2 need to traverse the graph in traditional method, whose time complexity is O n when the depth of the graph is high say, chain like. Our solution is to use the interval tree to achieve O log n , and use Merkel tree to for initialization. The following two sequences are used, the preorder sequence and the bracket sequence.
In Figure 1, the preorder sequence is 1 2 Our algorithm consists of the following three parts. All variables are global and initially valued 0 unless otherwise stated. For other intermediate variables we will illustrate in the following subsection. Before that, we recommend a protocol that each voter locally downloads the blockchain data and checks whether his delegate operation generates a cycle in the delegate graph.
If so, the voter should change his delegate. The protocol can be integrated in the client. After that, the prepare period begins. Then for all edges that are on a cycle, delete the latest edge. Then repeat the deletion until the delegate graph has no cycle9. After that, add an edge from each zero-outdegree node to the virtual node, resulting in the delegate tree T.
Since the rule is deterministic, all voters obtain a same delegate tree. Then, each voter locally call P reorder child , to obtain initialization data. The leaf nodes are ordered according to node. The Merkel root are hard-coded in the voting contract.
If the voting holder makes a mistake of the Merkel root, every voter can choose to ignore the voting contract and remind the holder to deploy a new contract After step c , the prepare period is over and the voting period begins. If two transaction have the same block height, the transaction with the larger timestamp are later.
If it matches, then the contract recovers a root according to data and proof, and checks if the result matches to the Merkel root stored in the contract. However, both 1 and 2 need to traverse the graph in traditional method, whose time complexity is O n when the depth of the graph is high say, chain like. Our solution is to use the interval tree to achieve O logn , and use Merkel tree to for initialization.
The following two sequences are used, the preorder sequence and the bracket sequence. Bracket sequence, that is, still traverse the tree in preorder but record the nodes when entering and exiting it respectively. Our algorithm consists of the following three parts.
All variables are global and initially valued 0 unless otherwise stated. For other intermediate variables we will illustrate in the following subsection. It has two methods: Delegate , voters call this method to appoint a delegate, or to undelegate by delegate to an empty address.
Before that, we recommend a protocol that each voter locally downloads the blockchain data and checks whether his delegate operation generates a cycle in the delegate graph. If so, the voter should change his delegate. The protocol can be integrated in the client. Vote , a holder calls this method to start a voting, and deploys a new smart contract, called the voting contract, which will be introduced in the following.
After that, the prepare period begins. For each voter, get his last delegate operation from the snapshot and add the corresponding direct edge to the delegate graph. Then for all edges that are on a cycle, delete the latest edge.
Then repeat the deletion until the delegate graph has no cycleAll transactions in Ethereum are attached with a time stamp. If two transaction have the same block height, the transaction with the larger timestamp are later. The rule of Etherum guarantees that the timestamp can not be forged too far from the actual time otherwise the transaction is infeasible. After that, add an edge from each zero-outdegree node to the virtual node, resulting in the delegate tree T.
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